Symbolism appeared in France and Europe between the 1880s and the beginning of the 20th century. The Symbolists, fascinated with ancient mythology, attempted to escape the reign of rational thought imposed by science. They wished to transcend the world of the visible and the rational in order to attain the world of pure thought, constantly flirting with the limits of the unconscious.
The French Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, the Belgians Fernand Khnopff and Félicien Rops, the English Edward Burne-Jones and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and the Dutch Jan Toorop are the most representative artists of the movement.

Symbolism

Whilst Impressionism marked the first steps toward modern painting by revolutionising an artistic medium stifled by academic conventions, Post-Impressionism, even more revolutionary, completely liberated colour and opened it to new, unknown horizons. Anchored in his epoch, relying on the new chromatic studies of Michel Eugène Chevreul, Georges Seurat transcribed the chemist's theory of colours into tiny points that created an entire image. With his heavy strokes, Van Gogh illustrated the midday sun, whilst Cézanne renounced perspective. Rich in its variety and in the singularity of its artists, Post-Impressionism was a passage taken by all the well-known figures of 20th century painting - it is here presented, for the great pleasure of the reader, by Nathalia Brodskaïa.

Post-Impressionism

Pierre-Auguste Renoir was born in Limoges on 25 February 1841. In 1854, the boy's parents took him from school and found a place for him in the Lévy brothers' workshop, where he was to learn to paint porcelain. Renoir's younger brother Edmond had this to say this about the move: "From what he drew in charcoal on the walls, they concluded that he had the ability for an artist's profession. That was how our parents came to put him to learn the trade of porcelain painter." One of the Lévys' workers, Emile Laporte, painted in oils in his spare time. He suggested Renoir makes use of his canvases and paints. This offer resulted in the appearance of the first painting by the future impressionist. In 1862 Renoir passed the examinations and entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and, simultaneously, one of the independent studios, where instruction was given by Charles Gleyre, a professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. The second, perhaps even the first, great event of this period in Renoir's life was his meeting, in Gleyre's studio, with those who were to become his best friends for the rest of his days and who shared his ideas about art. Much later, when he was already a mature artist, Renoir had the opportunity to see works by Rembrandt in Holland, Velázquez, Goya and El Greco in Spain, and Raphael in Italy. However, Renoir lived and breathed ideas of a new kind of art. He always found his inspirations in the Louvre. "For me, in the Gleyre era, the Louvre was Delacroix, " he confessed to Jean. For Renoir, the First Impressionist Exhibition was the moment his vision of art and the artist was affirmed. This period in Renoir's life was marked by one further significant event. In 1873 he moved to Montmartre, to the house at 35 Rue Saint-Georges, where he lived until 1884. Renoir remained loyal to Montmartre for the rest of his life. Here he found his "plein-air" subjects, his models and even his family. It was in the 1870s that Renoir acquired the friends who would stay with him for the remainder of his days. One of them was the art-dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, who began to buy his paintings in 1872. In summer, Renoir continued to paint a great deal outdoors together with Monet. He would travel out to Argenteuil, where Monet rented a house for his family. Edouard Manet sometimes worked with them too. In 1877, at the Third Impressionist Exhibition, Renoir presented a panorama of over twenty paintings. They included landscapes created in Paris, on the Seine, outside the city and in Claude Monet's garden; studies of women's heads and bouquets of flowers; portraits of Sisley, the actress Jeanne Samary, the writer Alphonse Daudet and the politician Spuller; and also The Swing and The Ball at the Moulin de la Galette. Finally, in the 1880s Renoir hit a "winning streak". He was commissioned by rich financiers, the owner of the Grands Magasins du Louvre and Senator Goujon. His paintings were exhibited in London and Brussels, as well as at the Seventh International Exhibition held at Georges Petit's in Paris in 1886. In a letter to Durand-Ruel, then in New York, Renoir wrote: "The Petit exhibition has opened and is not doing badly, so they say. After all, it's so hard to judge about yourself. I think I have managed to take a step forward towards public respect. A small step, but even that is something."

Renoir

"Vater Pissaro", wie seine Freunde ihn gern nannten, war wohl der nüchternste der Impressionisten. Vielleicht lag es an seinem Alter (welches weitaus fortgeschrittener war, als das seiner Kollegen Monet, Sisley, Bazille und Renoir) oder vielmehr an seiner Lebenserfahrung, die seine Werke sowohl in ihren Themen als auch in ihrer Komposition durchaus ruhig und schlicht erscheinen lassen. 

Ein Mann mit einfachem Geschmack, der es genoss, die Landbevölkerung in den Straßen zu malen, auch wenn er später mit seinen Stadtansichten Berühmtheit erlangen sollte, die er mit derselben Leidenschaft fertigte, die in ihm aufkam, wenn er wieder einen stürmischen Himmel oder den vom Frost gezeichneten Morgen auf die Leinwand bannte.

Pissarro

Der Symbolismus ist eine Erscheinung des Fin-de-Siècle, der seinen Anfang in den 1880er Jahren in Frankreich nahm und zu Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts auch im übrigen Europa Fuß fasste. Die von der antiken Mythologie faszinierten Symbolisten versuchten, sich der von der Wissenschaft etablierten Herrschaft der Rationalität zu entziehen. Sie wollten die sichtbare Welt und die Vernunft überwinden, um zur Welt des reinen Denkens und der Ästhetik, ja sogar zum Unterbewusstsein, vorzudringen.

Die Franzosen Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, die Belgier Fernand Khnopff und Félicien Rops, die Engländer Edward Burne-Jones und Dante Gabriel Rossetti sowie der Holländer Jan Toorop sind die herausragenden Repräsentanten dieser Kunstrichtung.

Symbolismus

For Claude Monet the designation `impressionist' always remained a source of pride. In spite of all the things critics have written about his work, Monet continued to be a true impressionist to the end of his very long life. He was so by deep conviction, and for his Impressionism he may have sacrificed many other opportunities that his enormous talent held out to him. Monet did not paint classical compositions with figures, and he did not become a portraitist, although his professional training included those skills. He chose a single genre for himself, landscape painting, and in that he achieved a degree of perfection none of his contemporaries managed to attain. Yet the little boy began by drawing caricatures. Boudin advised Monet to stop doing caricatures and to take up landscapes instead. The sea, the sky, animals, people, and trees are beautiful in the exact state in which nature created them - surrounded by air and light. Indeed, it was Boudin who passed on to Monet his conviction of the importance of working in the open air, which Monet would in turn transmit to his impressionist friends. Monet did not want to enrol at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. He chose to attend a private school, L'Académie Suisse, established by an ex-model on the Quai d'Orfèvres near the Pont Saint-Michel. One could draw and paint from a live model there for a modest fee. This was where Monet met the future impressionist Camille Pissarro. Later in Gleyre's studio, Monet met Auguste Renoir Alfred Sisley, and Frédéric Bazille. Monet considered it very important that Boudin be introduced to his new friends. He also told his friends of another painter he had found in Normandy. This was the remarkable Dutchman Jongkind. His landscapes were saturated with colour, and their sincerity, at times even their naïveté, was combined with subtle observation of the Normandy shore's variable nature. At this time Monet's landscapes were not yet characterized by great richness of colour. Rather, they recalled the tonalities of paintings by the Barbizon artists, and Boudin's seascapes. He composed a range of colour based on yellow-brown or blue-grey. At the Third Impressionist Exhibition in 1877 Monet presented a series of paintings for the first time: seven views of the Saint-Lazare train station. He selected them from among twelve he had painted at the station. This motif in Monet's work is in line not only with Manet's Chemin de fer (The Railway) and with his own landscapes featuring trains and stations at Argenteuil, but also with a trend that surfaced after the railways first began to appear. In 1883, Monet had bought a house in the village of Giverny, near the little town of Vernon. At Giverny, series painting became one of his chief working procedures. Meadows became his permanent workplace. When a journalist, who had come from Vétheuil to interview Monet, asked him where his studio was, the painter answered, "My studio! I've never had a studio, and I can't see why one would lock oneself up in a room. To draw, yes - to paint, no". Then, broadly gesturing towards the Seine, the hills, and the silhouette of the little town, he declared, "There's my real studio."Monet began to go to London in the last decade of the nineteenth century. He began all his London paintings working directly from nature, but completed many of them afterwards, at Giverny. The series formed an indivisible whole, and the painter had to work on all his canvases at one time. A friend of Monet's, the writer Octave Mirbeau, wrote that he had accomplished a miracle. With the help of colours he had succeeded in recreating on the canvas something almost impossible to capture: he was reproducing sunlight, enriching it with an infinite number of reflections. Alone among the impressionists, Claude Monet took an almost scientific study of the possibilities of colour to its limits; it is unlikely that one could have gone any further in that direction.

Claude Monet

Para Monet, o acto de criar foi sempre um esforço doloroso. A sua obsessão em captar os efeitos luminosos na natureza foi muito mais intensa que a dos seus contemporâneos. Segundo as suas palavras: "o talento vai e vem... A arte é sempre a mesma coisa: a transposição da natureza que requer tanta vontade como sensibilidade. Eu luto contra o sol... Devo também pintar com ouro e pedras preciosas."

Monet

Alfred Sisley (1839-1899) gilt als der Schüchternste unter den Impressionisten und obwohl er künstlerisch immer im Schatten von Pierre-Auguste Renoir und Claude Monet stand, verband ihn mit beiden eine lebenslange Freundschaft. In Sisleys Landschaftsbildern ist stets ein Gefühl aufrichtiger Bewunderung für die Natur zu spüren, eine große Zärtlichkeit und zugleich ein wenig Trauer. Die Natur wird nicht einfach auf der Leinwand wiedergegeben. Vielmehr steht die Farbe im Dienst des Ausdrucks einer ganzen Skala von Gefühlen, die die Natur im Menschen erweckt. 

 Mit dieser umfangreich bebilderten Ebook-Monografie wird der Versuch unternommen, Sisley zu der künstlerischen Beachtung zu verhelfen, die ihm zu Lebzeiten verwehrt blieb.

Sisley

Als Impressionist zu gelten war für Monet eine Auszeichnung. Er war es aus tiefer Überzeugung und blieb es bis an das Ende seines langen Lebens. Er begnügte sich mit einem einzigen Genre, dem der Landschaftsmalerei. Hier aber brachte er es zu einer Vollkommenheit, an die keiner seiner Zeitgenossen heranreichte. Im Sommer jenes Jahres kam es zu gemeinsamen Malübungen mit Boudin (1824 bis 1898) am Meeresstrand. "Mit der Zeit gingen mir die Augen auf und ich begann, die Natur zu verstehen; zugleich lernte ich, sie zu lieben" - so erinnert sich Monet später an diese gemeinsamen Exerzitien. Er besucht nicht die Ecole des Beaux-Arts, sondern zieht die von Monsieur Suisse, einem ehemaligen Modell Davids, gegründete freie "Académie Suisse" vor. Hier war es möglich, für einen geringen Beitrag lebende Modelle zu malen und zu zeichnen. Die Farbskala der Bilder, die Monet 1871 und 1872 malte, ist nicht sehr breit; sie erinnert an die der Barbizon-Schule und an die Seestücke Boudins. Die Grundtöne sind braungelb und blaugrau. Im Jahr 1877 wurde die dritte Ausstellung der Impressionisten eröffnet, bei der Monet zum ersten Mal eine Bilderserie zeigte. Mit seinem Motiv, dem Bahnhof Saint-Lazare, setzte Monet nicht nur Manets Die Eisenbahn und seine eigenen Landschaftsbilder aus Argenteuil fort, er schloss sich darüber hinaus der bei den Künstlern wachsenden Tendenz an, sich von diesem Transportmittel faszinieren zu lassen. In seinem Wohnort Giverny wurden die Bilderserien Monets wichtigste Arbeitsmethode. In den 1890er Jahren entdeckte Monet London. Zwar begann er die Bilder allesamt in London, beendete viele von ihnen aber in Giverny. Für den Schriftsteller Octave Mirbeau (1848 bis 1917) war Monet ein Mensch, der Wunder vollbrachte: Mit Hilfe der Farben habe er auf der Leinwand das Sonnenlicht, etwas nahezu Unfassbares, nachgebildet und es um eine Unzahl prismatischer Facetten bereichert. Tatsächlich hat Monet das Potenzial der Farbe mit nahezu wissenschaftlicher Strenge bis zu seinen äußersten Konsequenzen getrieben; kein anderer Impressionist ist darin so weit gegangen wie er, und es ist wenig wahrscheinlich, dass man in dieser Richtung hätte noch weitergehen können.

Symbolism

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